Difference between revisions of "Viola palmata"
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Common names: Early blue violet, Wood violet | Common names: Early blue violet, Wood violet | ||
==Taxonomic notes== | ==Taxonomic notes== | ||
| − | Synonyms: '' | + | Synonyms: ''V. stoneana''; ''V. palmata''; ''V. chalcosperma'' Brainerd.<ref>Weakley, A.S. 2015. Flora of the southern and mid-atlantic states. Working Draf of 21 May 2015. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.</ref> |
| + | |||
| + | Variations: ''V. palmata'' var. ''triloba''.<ref>Weakley, A.S. 2015. Flora of the southern and mid-atlantic states. Working Draf of 21 May 2015. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.</ref> | ||
==Description== | ==Description== | ||
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --> | <!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --> | ||
| − | "Herbaceous, rhizomatous or stoloniferous perennials, or winter annuals. Leaves crenate or crenate-serrate, dissected, lobed or unlobed; petiolate; stipules conspicuous. Flowers zygomorphic, peduncles directly from the rhizome (acaulescent) or peduncles axillary (caulescent). Chasmogamous flowers with lateral petals often bearded, lower petal spurred; anthers usually seated in the throat, orange appendages conspicuous, lower stamens spurred; spurs fitting in to the spur of the corolla; styles usually clavate, variously shaped at the apex. Dates for ''Viola'', except ''V. pedata'', are for Chasmogamous flowering only, cleistogamous flowering and fruiting commence shortly after chasmogamous flowering and continues until frost. Hybrids are so numerous in this genus that space is not taken to list them." <ref name="Radford"> Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 665. Print. </ref> | + | "Herbaceous, rhizomatous or stoloniferous perennials, or winter annuals. Leaves crenate or crenate-serrate, dissected, lobed or unlobed; petiolate; stipules conspicuous. Flowers zygomorphic, peduncles directly from the rhizome (acaulescent) or peduncles axillary (caulescent). Chasmogamous flowers with lateral petals often bearded, lower petal spurred; anthers usually seated in the throat, orange appendages conspicuous, lower stamens spurred; spurs fitting in to the spur of the corolla; styles usually clavate, variously shaped at the apex. Dates for ''Viola'', except ''V. pedata'', are for Chasmogamous flowering only, cleistogamous flowering and fruiting commence shortly after chasmogamous flowering and continues until frost. Hybrids are so numerous in this genus that space is not taken to list them."<ref name="Radford"> Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 665. Print.</ref> |
| − | "Plant acaulescent; rhizomes elongate, stocky, usually more than 4 mm in diam., horizontal, often freely branched. Leaves widely ovate, 5-10 cm long, or occasionally larger, crenate, unlobed, lobed or dissected, cordate, glabrous or pubescent; petioles to 2 dm long; stipules linear to linear-lanceolate, 0.5-2 cm long, fimbriate, rarely entire. Peduncles of chasmogamous flowers nearly as long as the leaves, or slightly longer. Chasmogamous flowers 1.5-4 cm broad, not flat, petals deep reddish violet, lateral petals bearded with clavate trichomes, spurred petal usually glabrous, or occasionally with some trichomes; sepals 6-10 mm long, acute to obtuse, glabrous to ciliate or only the auricles ciliate, auricles 0.5-1 mm long; stamen appendages brilliant orange, deep in the throat of the flower; style clavate. Cleistogamous flowers on divergent peduncles 3-12 cm long or the peduncles erect and short; sepals 4-6 mm long, acute, auricles ca. 1 mm long. Capsules 6-12 mm long. Seeds brown, usually mottled, 1.5-2.3 mm long." <ref name="Radford"/> | + | "Plant acaulescent; rhizomes elongate, stocky, usually more than 4 mm in diam., horizontal, often freely branched. Leaves widely ovate, 5-10 cm long, or occasionally larger, crenate, unlobed, lobed or dissected, cordate, glabrous or pubescent; petioles to 2 dm long; stipules linear to linear-lanceolate, 0.5-2 cm long, fimbriate, rarely entire. Peduncles of chasmogamous flowers nearly as long as the leaves, or slightly longer. Chasmogamous flowers 1.5-4 cm broad, not flat, petals deep reddish violet, lateral petals bearded with clavate trichomes, spurred petal usually glabrous, or occasionally with some trichomes; sepals 6-10 mm long, acute to obtuse, glabrous to ciliate or only the auricles ciliate, auricles 0.5-1 mm long; stamen appendages brilliant orange, deep in the throat of the flower; style clavate. Cleistogamous flowers on divergent peduncles 3-12 cm long or the peduncles erect and short; sepals 4-6 mm long, acute, auricles ca. 1 mm long. Capsules 6-12 mm long. Seeds brown, usually mottled, 1.5-2.3 mm long."<ref name="Radford"/> |
==Distribution== | ==Distribution== | ||
==Ecology== | ==Ecology== | ||
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--> | ===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--> | ||
| − | In the Coastal Plain in Florida and Georgia, ''V. palmata'' has been found in natural longleaf stands; longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas; loamy soil along mesic hardwood slopes; seepages in ravines; river banks; sandy loam under beech-magnolia forests; hardwood hammocks; oak-palmetto woods; alluvial soil of floodplain forests; between road and slash pine/wiregrass flatwoods; recently burned longleaf pine; longleaf pine-palmetto flats; loamy sand of grassy savanna; second growth loblolly pinewoods; sandy soil of turkey oak-longleaf pine flats; calcareous bluffs; upland mixed woodlands; beech-magnolia forests; and loamy humus of shallow depression of shaded limestone rock in hardwood maritime hammock.<ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: July 2015. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, K. Craddock Burks, Robert K. Godfrey, S. W. Leonard, Wilson Baker, James R. Burkhalter, Robert Kral, L. B. Trott, J. P. Gillespie, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, Patricia Elliot, Cecil R Slaughter, S. R. Harrison, C. Jackson, Nir L. Gil, Angus Gholson, Steve L. Orzell, Edwin L. Bridges, A. G. Shuey, Sidney McDaniel, S. C. Hood, Richard Carter, Mark A Garland, Richard S. Mitchell, Karen MacClendon, B. & M. Boothe, M. R. Darst, Rodie White, R. A. Norris, R. Komarek. States and Counties: Florida: Calhoun, Clay, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Hamilton, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, Leon, Liberty, Madison, Manatee, Marion, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, Seminole, St. Johns, Taylor, Wakulla, Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Compiled by Tall Timbers Research Station and Land Conservancy.</ref> <ref name="K04"> Kirkman, L. K., K. L. Coffey, et al. (2004). "Ground cover recovery patterns and life-history traits: implications for restoration obstacles and opportunities in a species-rich savanna." Journal of Ecology 92: 409-421. </ref> It has been found to be extremely vulnerable to disturbance <ref name="K04"/> however has been found growing along roadsides, sands of disturbed hillside bogs, lakesides, calcareous banks between earth road and drainage canal, ectone between oak woodland and open powerline corridor, heavily cattle grazed palmetto flatwoods, and a powerline transect through a longleaf pine-wiregrass savanna. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/ | + | In the Coastal Plain in Florida and Georgia, ''V. palmata'' has been found in natural longleaf stands; longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas; loamy soil along mesic hardwood slopes; seepages in ravines; river banks; sandy loam under beech-magnolia forests; hardwood hammocks; oak-palmetto woods; alluvial soil of floodplain forests; between road and slash pine/wiregrass flatwoods; recently burned longleaf pine; longleaf pine-palmetto flats; loamy sand of grassy savanna; second growth loblolly pinewoods; sandy soil of turkey oak-longleaf pine flats; calcareous bluffs; upland mixed woodlands; beech-magnolia forests; and loamy humus of shallow depression of shaded limestone rock in hardwood maritime hammock.<ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: July 2015. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, K. Craddock Burks, Robert K. Godfrey, S. W. Leonard, Wilson Baker, James R. Burkhalter, Robert Kral, L. B. Trott, J. P. Gillespie, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, Patricia Elliot, Cecil R Slaughter, S. R. Harrison, C. Jackson, Nir L. Gil, Angus Gholson, Steve L. Orzell, Edwin L. Bridges, A. G. Shuey, Sidney McDaniel, S. C. Hood, Richard Carter, Mark A Garland, Richard S. Mitchell, Karen MacClendon, B. & M. Boothe, M. R. Darst, Rodie White, R. A. Norris, R. Komarek. States and Counties: Florida: Calhoun, Clay, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Hamilton, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, Leon, Liberty, Madison, Manatee, Marion, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, Seminole, St. Johns, Taylor, Wakulla, Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Compiled by Tall Timbers Research Station and Land Conservancy.</ref><ref name="K04"> Kirkman, L. K., K. L. Coffey, et al. (2004). "Ground cover recovery patterns and life-history traits: implications for restoration obstacles and opportunities in a species-rich savanna." Journal of Ecology 92: 409-421.</ref> It has been found to be extremely vulnerable to disturbance<ref name="K04"/> however has been found growing along roadsides, sands of disturbed hillside bogs, lakesides, calcareous banks between earth road and drainage canal, ectone between oak woodland and open powerline corridor, heavily cattle grazed palmetto flatwoods, and a powerline transect through a longleaf pine-wiregrass savanna.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> |
| − | Substrate types include loamy soil, loamy sand, sandy loam, peaty sand, alluvial soil, sandy-peaty soil, sandy-clayey soil, limestone and loamy humus. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> Associated species include ''Carex crebriflora, Viola floridana, Aristida, Eleocharis, V. villosa, V. lanceolata, Chaptalia, Lycopodium, Sisyrinchium, Calopogon'', and ''Hypericum.'' <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> | + | ''V. palmata'' became absent in response to military training in west Georgia.<ref>Dale, V.H., S.C. Beyeler, and B. Jackson. (2002). Understory vegetation indicators of anthropogenic disturbance in longleaf pine forests at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA. Ecological Indicators 1(3):155-170.</ref> It also became absent in response to soil disturbance by agriculture in southwest Georgia.<ref>Kirkman, L.K., K.L. Coffey, R.J. Mitchell, and E.B. Moser. Ground Cover Recovery Patterns and Life-History Traits: Implications for Restoration Obstacles and Opportunities in a Species-Rich Savanna. (2004). Journal of Ecology 92(3):409-421.</ref> ''V. palmata'' increased its frequency in response to soil disturbance by clearcutting and chopping in north Florida flatwoods forests.<ref>Moore, W.H., B.F. Swindel, and W.S. Terry. (1982). Vegetative Response to Clearcutting and Chopping in a North Florida Flatwoods Forest. Journal of Range Management 35(2):214-218.</ref> |
| + | |||
| + | Substrate types include loamy soil, loamy sand, sandy loam, peaty sand, alluvial soil, sandy-peaty soil, sandy-clayey soil, limestone and loamy humus.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> Associated species include ''Carex crebriflora, Viola floridana, Aristida, Eleocharis, V. villosa, V. lanceolata, Chaptalia, Lycopodium, Sisyrinchium, Calopogon'', and ''Hypericum.''<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> | ||
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --> | ===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --> | ||
| − | ''V. palmata'' is a summer forb. <ref name="K04"/> | + | ''V. palmata'' is a summer forb.<ref name="K04"/> |
It has been recorded flowering January through May, August, September, and in December with peak inflorescence in February and March.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 15 DEC 2016</ref><ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> It has been observed fruiting February, March, April, August and September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> | It has been recorded flowering January through May, August, September, and in December with peak inflorescence in February and March.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 15 DEC 2016</ref><ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> It has been observed fruiting February, March, April, August and September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> | ||
===Seed dispersal=== | ===Seed dispersal=== | ||
| − | ''V. palmata'' is thought to be dispersed by ants and/or explosive dehiscence. <ref> Kirkman, L. Katherine. Unpublished database of seed dispersal mode of plants found in Coastal Plain longleaf pine-grasslands of the Jones Ecological Research Center, Georgia.</ref> | + | ''V. palmata'' is thought to be dispersed by ants and/or explosive dehiscence.<ref> Kirkman, L. Katherine. Unpublished database of seed dispersal mode of plants found in Coastal Plain longleaf pine-grasslands of the Jones Ecological Research Center, Georgia.</ref> |
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--> | <!--===Seed bank and germination===--> | ||
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--> | ===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--> | ||
| − | It has been observed flowering February and March after a fire. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> | + | Populations of ''Viola palmata'' have been known to persist through repeated annual burns.<ref>Robertson, K.M. Unpublished data collected from Pebble Hill Fire Plots, Pebble Hill Plantation, Thomasville, Georgia.</ref> It has been observed flowering February and March after a fire.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> |
| − | <!--===Pollination===--> | + | <!--===Pollination===--> |
| − | <!--=== | + | <!--===Herbivory and toxicology=== <!--Common herbivores, granivory, insect hosting, poisonous chemicals, allelopathy, etc.--> |
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--> | <!--===Diseases and parasites===--> | ||
| − | ==Conservation and | + | |
| − | == | + | ==Conservation, cultivation, and restoration== |
| + | |||
| + | ==Cultural use== | ||
| + | The flowers can be candied, used in soups and baking. The roots are toxic and should be avoided.<ref> Fernald, et al. 1958. Edible Plants of Eastern North America. Harper and Row Publishers, New York.</ref> | ||
| + | |||
==Photo Gallery== | ==Photo Gallery== | ||
<gallery widths=180px> | <gallery widths=180px> | ||
Latest revision as of 13:25, 18 July 2022
| Viola palmata | |
|---|---|
| |
| Photo was taken by Gil Nelson | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Division: | Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants |
| Class: | Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons |
| Order: | Violales |
| Family: | Violaceae |
| Genus: | Viola |
| Species: | V. palmata |
| Binomial name | |
| Viola palmata L. (pro sp.) | |
| |
| Natural range of Viola palmata from USDA NRCS Plants Database. | |
Common names: Early blue violet, Wood violet
Contents
Taxonomic notes
Synonyms: V. stoneana; V. palmata; V. chalcosperma Brainerd.[1]
Variations: V. palmata var. triloba.[2]
Description
"Herbaceous, rhizomatous or stoloniferous perennials, or winter annuals. Leaves crenate or crenate-serrate, dissected, lobed or unlobed; petiolate; stipules conspicuous. Flowers zygomorphic, peduncles directly from the rhizome (acaulescent) or peduncles axillary (caulescent). Chasmogamous flowers with lateral petals often bearded, lower petal spurred; anthers usually seated in the throat, orange appendages conspicuous, lower stamens spurred; spurs fitting in to the spur of the corolla; styles usually clavate, variously shaped at the apex. Dates for Viola, except V. pedata, are for Chasmogamous flowering only, cleistogamous flowering and fruiting commence shortly after chasmogamous flowering and continues until frost. Hybrids are so numerous in this genus that space is not taken to list them."[3]
"Plant acaulescent; rhizomes elongate, stocky, usually more than 4 mm in diam., horizontal, often freely branched. Leaves widely ovate, 5-10 cm long, or occasionally larger, crenate, unlobed, lobed or dissected, cordate, glabrous or pubescent; petioles to 2 dm long; stipules linear to linear-lanceolate, 0.5-2 cm long, fimbriate, rarely entire. Peduncles of chasmogamous flowers nearly as long as the leaves, or slightly longer. Chasmogamous flowers 1.5-4 cm broad, not flat, petals deep reddish violet, lateral petals bearded with clavate trichomes, spurred petal usually glabrous, or occasionally with some trichomes; sepals 6-10 mm long, acute to obtuse, glabrous to ciliate or only the auricles ciliate, auricles 0.5-1 mm long; stamen appendages brilliant orange, deep in the throat of the flower; style clavate. Cleistogamous flowers on divergent peduncles 3-12 cm long or the peduncles erect and short; sepals 4-6 mm long, acute, auricles ca. 1 mm long. Capsules 6-12 mm long. Seeds brown, usually mottled, 1.5-2.3 mm long."[3]
Distribution
Ecology
Habitat
In the Coastal Plain in Florida and Georgia, V. palmata has been found in natural longleaf stands; longleaf pine-wiregrass savannas; loamy soil along mesic hardwood slopes; seepages in ravines; river banks; sandy loam under beech-magnolia forests; hardwood hammocks; oak-palmetto woods; alluvial soil of floodplain forests; between road and slash pine/wiregrass flatwoods; recently burned longleaf pine; longleaf pine-palmetto flats; loamy sand of grassy savanna; second growth loblolly pinewoods; sandy soil of turkey oak-longleaf pine flats; calcareous bluffs; upland mixed woodlands; beech-magnolia forests; and loamy humus of shallow depression of shaded limestone rock in hardwood maritime hammock.[4][5] It has been found to be extremely vulnerable to disturbance[5] however has been found growing along roadsides, sands of disturbed hillside bogs, lakesides, calcareous banks between earth road and drainage canal, ectone between oak woodland and open powerline corridor, heavily cattle grazed palmetto flatwoods, and a powerline transect through a longleaf pine-wiregrass savanna.[4]
V. palmata became absent in response to military training in west Georgia.[6] It also became absent in response to soil disturbance by agriculture in southwest Georgia.[7] V. palmata increased its frequency in response to soil disturbance by clearcutting and chopping in north Florida flatwoods forests.[8]
Substrate types include loamy soil, loamy sand, sandy loam, peaty sand, alluvial soil, sandy-peaty soil, sandy-clayey soil, limestone and loamy humus.[4] Associated species include Carex crebriflora, Viola floridana, Aristida, Eleocharis, V. villosa, V. lanceolata, Chaptalia, Lycopodium, Sisyrinchium, Calopogon, and Hypericum.[4]
Phenology
V. palmata is a summer forb.[5] It has been recorded flowering January through May, August, September, and in December with peak inflorescence in February and March.[9][4] It has been observed fruiting February, March, April, August and September.[4]
Seed dispersal
V. palmata is thought to be dispersed by ants and/or explosive dehiscence.[10]
Fire ecology
Populations of Viola palmata have been known to persist through repeated annual burns.[11] It has been observed flowering February and March after a fire.[4]
Conservation, cultivation, and restoration
Cultural use
The flowers can be candied, used in soups and baking. The roots are toxic and should be avoided.[12]
Photo Gallery
Viola palmata Photo by Kevin Robertson
Thomas County, GA
References and notes
- ↑ Weakley, A.S. 2015. Flora of the southern and mid-atlantic states. Working Draf of 21 May 2015. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
- ↑ Weakley, A.S. 2015. Flora of the southern and mid-atlantic states. Working Draf of 21 May 2015. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 665. Print.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: July 2015. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, K. Craddock Burks, Robert K. Godfrey, S. W. Leonard, Wilson Baker, James R. Burkhalter, Robert Kral, L. B. Trott, J. P. Gillespie, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, Patricia Elliot, Cecil R Slaughter, S. R. Harrison, C. Jackson, Nir L. Gil, Angus Gholson, Steve L. Orzell, Edwin L. Bridges, A. G. Shuey, Sidney McDaniel, S. C. Hood, Richard Carter, Mark A Garland, Richard S. Mitchell, Karen MacClendon, B. & M. Boothe, M. R. Darst, Rodie White, R. A. Norris, R. Komarek. States and Counties: Florida: Calhoun, Clay, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Hamilton, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, Leon, Liberty, Madison, Manatee, Marion, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, Seminole, St. Johns, Taylor, Wakulla, Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Compiled by Tall Timbers Research Station and Land Conservancy.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Kirkman, L. K., K. L. Coffey, et al. (2004). "Ground cover recovery patterns and life-history traits: implications for restoration obstacles and opportunities in a species-rich savanna." Journal of Ecology 92: 409-421.
- ↑ Dale, V.H., S.C. Beyeler, and B. Jackson. (2002). Understory vegetation indicators of anthropogenic disturbance in longleaf pine forests at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA. Ecological Indicators 1(3):155-170.
- ↑ Kirkman, L.K., K.L. Coffey, R.J. Mitchell, and E.B. Moser. Ground Cover Recovery Patterns and Life-History Traits: Implications for Restoration Obstacles and Opportunities in a Species-Rich Savanna. (2004). Journal of Ecology 92(3):409-421.
- ↑ Moore, W.H., B.F. Swindel, and W.S. Terry. (1982). Vegetative Response to Clearcutting and Chopping in a North Florida Flatwoods Forest. Journal of Range Management 35(2):214-218.
- ↑ Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 15 DEC 2016
- ↑ Kirkman, L. Katherine. Unpublished database of seed dispersal mode of plants found in Coastal Plain longleaf pine-grasslands of the Jones Ecological Research Center, Georgia.
- ↑ Robertson, K.M. Unpublished data collected from Pebble Hill Fire Plots, Pebble Hill Plantation, Thomasville, Georgia.
- ↑ Fernald, et al. 1958. Edible Plants of Eastern North America. Harper and Row Publishers, New York.
