http://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Asnyder&feedformat=atomCoastal Plain Plants Wiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-27T05:21:07ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.31.3http://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88679Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T19:17:29Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Indigofera caroliniana'' is distributed from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida, and west to southeastern Louisiana. It is considered a Southeastern Coastal Plain endemic species.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
Generally, this species can be found in sandhills, maritime forests, Florida scrub habitats, and other sandy woodlands or forests.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> <br />
<br />
Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' generally flowers from June until August, and fruits from July until October.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
Other members of the Hymenoptera order that have been observed pollinating ''I. caroliniana'' include ''Dialictus placidensis''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
Since the overall range is restricted of this species, it is listed on the global scale as G4, but it is relatively common in the region. It is also listed as vulnerable by the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 31, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88678Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T19:16:45Z<p>Asnyder: /* Pollination */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Indigofera caroliniana'' is distributed from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida, and west to southeastern Louisiana. It is considered a Southeastern Coastal Plain endemic species.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
Generally, this species can be found in sandhills, maritime forests, Florida scrub habitats, and other sandy woodlands or forests.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> <br />
<br />
Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' generally flowers from June until August, and fruits from July until October.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
Other members of the Hymenoptera order that have been observed pollinating ''I. caroliniana'' include ''Dialictus placidensis''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
Deyrup observed these bees, ''Anthidiellum notatuin rufimaculatum, A. perplexum,Megachile albitarsis'' on ''I. caroliniana''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
Since the overall range is restricted of this species, it is listed on the global scale as G4, but it is relatively common in the region. It is also listed as vulnerable by the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 31, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88677Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T19:11:32Z<p>Asnyder: /* Conservation and management */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Indigofera caroliniana'' is distributed from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida, and west to southeastern Louisiana. It is considered a Southeastern Coastal Plain endemic species.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
Generally, this species can be found in sandhills, maritime forests, Florida scrub habitats, and other sandy woodlands or forests.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> <br />
<br />
Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' generally flowers from June until August, and fruits from July until October.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
Deyrup observed these bees, ''Anthidiellum notatuin rufimaculatum, A. perplexum,Megachile albitarsis'' on ''I. caroliniana''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
Since the overall range is restricted of this species, it is listed on the global scale as G4, but it is relatively common in the region. It is also listed as vulnerable by the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 31, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88676Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T19:08:25Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Indigofera caroliniana'' is distributed from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida, and west to southeastern Louisiana. It is considered a Southeastern Coastal Plain endemic species.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
Generally, this species can be found in sandhills, maritime forests, Florida scrub habitats, and other sandy woodlands or forests.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> <br />
<br />
Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' generally flowers from June until August, and fruits from July until October.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
Deyrup observed these bees, ''Anthidiellum notatuin rufimaculatum, A. perplexum,Megachile albitarsis'' on ''I. caroliniana''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88675Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T19:07:38Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Indigofera caroliniana'' is distributed from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida, and west to southeastern Louisiana. It is considered a Southeastern Coastal Plain endemic species.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
Generally, this species can be found in sandhills, maritime forests, Florida scrub habitats, and other sandy woodlands or forests.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> <br />
<br />
Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
Deyrup observed these bees, ''Anthidiellum notatuin rufimaculatum, A. perplexum,Megachile albitarsis'' on ''I. caroliniana''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88674Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T19:06:17Z<p>Asnyder: /* Distribution */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Indigofera caroliniana'' is distributed from eastern North Carolina south to southern Florida, and west to southeastern Louisiana. It is considered a Southeastern Coastal Plain endemic species.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
<br />
It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
Deyrup observed these bees, ''Anthidiellum notatuin rufimaculatum, A. perplexum,Megachile albitarsis'' on ''I. caroliniana''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Indigofera_caroliniana&diff=88673Indigofera caroliniana2019-05-31T18:41:43Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Indigofera caroliniana<br />
| image = Indi_car2.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, [http://www.forestryimages.org Bugwood.org] <br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons<br />
| ordo = Fabales<br />
| familia = Fabaceae ⁄ Leguminosae<br />
| genus = ''Indigofera''<br />
| species = '''''I. caroliniana'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Indigofera caroliniana''<br />
| binomial_authority = Mill.<br />
| range_map = INDO_CARO_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=INCA Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Carolina indigo; wild indigo<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
Where this species is found, it is frequent. <ref name="FSU Herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: [http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu]. Last accessed: June 2014. Collectors: Ed Keppner, Lisa Keppner, Loran C. Anderson, James R. Burkhalter, R.K. Godfrey, R. C. Phillips, C. Jackson, R L Lazor, Sidney McDaniel, Richard S. Mitchell, R. Kral, D. B. Ward, J. Beckner, O. Lakela, L. J. Brass, Roland McKee, Rodie White, Andre F. Clewell, R. Komarek, Richard R. Clinebell II, Cecil R Slaughter, B. E. Smith, R. L. Wilbur, William B. Fox, L. A. Whitford, James W. Hardin, Wilbur H Duncan, Ted Bradley, John Stevenson, H. R. Reed, John B. Nelson, A. Goodyear, R. Wetmore, Brian R. Keener, and Wayne K. Webb. States and Counties: Florida: Bay, Collier, Dixie, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Hernando, Highlands, Jackson, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Madison, Okaloosa, Taylor, Wakulla, and Walton. Georgia: Grady, McIntosh, Thomas, and Tift. South Carolina: Darlington. North Carolina: Bladen, Brunswick, Richland, and Sampson. Alabama: Henry, Mobile, and Wilcox.</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
"Suffruticose herb 0.5-1.2 (2) m tall. Leaves odd-pinnate, 5-10 cm long with a slightly strigillose rachis; leaflets 9-15, mostly obovate to oblanceolate, 1-2.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, minutely strigillose on both surfaces, trichomes appearing as though attached at their middle, estipellate. Racemes pedunculate, axillary or terminal, 6-20 cm long usually longer than subtending leaf, slender, with numerous, loosely arranged flowers; pedicel ca. 1 mm long, subtended by a triangular, subulate bract 0.8-1 mm long, lobes 0.20.4 mm long; petals pinkish to yellowish brown, the standard and keel 5-6 mm long, the wings 1-2 mm shorter and adherent to the laterally pouched keel petals; stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1, with the connective extended above the anthers. Legume 5-10 mm long, short-stipitate, beaked, 1-3 seeded." <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 624. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
<br />
It is found along the edges of flatwoods, mixed woodlands, upland ridges, deciduous forests, slash pine-hardwood stands, sand pine scrub, and sand ridges. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> This species grows in sand and sandy loam in open areas. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> This species also occurs outside of its natural environments in human disturbed areas such as open fields, bulldozed scrub oak sand hills, clobbered slash pine and hardwood fields, and wood pastures. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/> Associated species include Longleaf pine, Turkey oak, Slash pine, Sand live oak, myrtle oak, sand pine, chapman oak, ''Cuthbertia, Rhynchosia,'' and'' Pediomelium'', Shortleaf pine, red oak, Mockernut hickory, Wiregrass, and Bluejack oak. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<br />
''I. caroliniana'' has been observed flowering in April, June through August, and in December with peak inflorescence in July.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has been observed fruiting June through September.<ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species occurs in areas that is burned. <ref name="FSU Herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Indigofera caroliniana'' at Archbold Biological Station: <ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Lasioglossum placidensis''<br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum perplexus''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
Deyrup observed these bees, ''Anthidiellum notatuin rufimaculatum, A. perplexum,Megachile albitarsis'' on ''I. caroliniana''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88672Ilex glabra2019-05-31T18:23:02Z<p>Asnyder: /* Conservation and management */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/> This species is thought to be seed dispersed by various birds.<ref>Skeate, S. T. (1987). "Interactions between birds and fruits in a Northern Florida hammock community." Ecology 68(2): 297-309.</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> While summer burns are the most damaging, they are also the most beneficial for overall occurrence and biomass of the species after fire.<ref>Kush, J. S., et al. (2000). Understory plant community response to season of burn in natural longleaf pine forests. Proceedings 21st Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire and forest ecology: innovative silviculture & vegetation management, Tallahassee, FL, Tall Timbers Research, Inc.</ref> As well, recovery of this species after a fire disturbance was found to reach original size 36 months post-burn.<ref>Schmalzer, P. A. and C. R. Hinkle (1992). "Recovery of Oak-Saw Palmetto Scrub after Fire." Castanea 57(3): 158-173.</ref> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
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Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref> This species is considered one of the most important fruit-yielding plants for supporting wildlife in Georgia flatwoods communities.<ref>Johnson, A. S. and J. L. Landers (1978). "Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia." The Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3): 606-613.</ref> Medicinally, the leaves are considered an astringent, and the fruit are considered emetic and a tonic.<ref>Nickell, J. M. (1911). J.M.Nickell's botanical ready reference : especially designed for druggists and physicians : containing all of the botanical drugs known up to the present time, giving their medical properties, and all of their botanical, common, pharmacopoeal and German common (in German) names. Chicago, IL, Murray & Nickell MFG. Co.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/> In managing for supplemental feeding of livestock, this species might be desirable to eradicate since it is mostly unpalatable and increases fire hazard as well as decreasing herbage production.<ref>Southwell, B. L. and L. K. Halls (1955). "Supplemental feeding of range cattle in longleaf-slash pine forests of Georgia." Journal of Range Management 8(1): 25-30.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88671Ilex glabra2019-05-31T18:20:58Z<p>Asnyder: /* Seed dispersal */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/> This species is thought to be seed dispersed by various birds.<ref>Skeate, S. T. (1987). "Interactions between birds and fruits in a Northern Florida hammock community." Ecology 68(2): 297-309.</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> While summer burns are the most damaging, they are also the most beneficial for overall occurrence and biomass of the species after fire.<ref>Kush, J. S., et al. (2000). Understory plant community response to season of burn in natural longleaf pine forests. Proceedings 21st Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire and forest ecology: innovative silviculture & vegetation management, Tallahassee, FL, Tall Timbers Research, Inc.</ref> As well, recovery of this species after a fire disturbance was found to reach original size 36 months post-burn.<ref>Schmalzer, P. A. and C. R. Hinkle (1992). "Recovery of Oak-Saw Palmetto Scrub after Fire." Castanea 57(3): 158-173.</ref> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref> This species is considered one of the most important fruit-yielding plants for supporting wildlife in Georgia flatwoods communities.<ref>Johnson, A. S. and J. L. Landers (1978). "Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia." The Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3): 606-613.</ref> Medicinally, the leaves are considered an astringent, and the fruit are considered emetic and a tonic.<ref>Nickell, J. M. (1911). J.M.Nickell's botanical ready reference : especially designed for druggists and physicians : containing all of the botanical drugs known up to the present time, giving their medical properties, and all of their botanical, common, pharmacopoeal and German common (in German) names. Chicago, IL, Murray & Nickell MFG. Co.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88670Ilex glabra2019-05-31T18:18:30Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> While summer burns are the most damaging, they are also the most beneficial for overall occurrence and biomass of the species after fire.<ref>Kush, J. S., et al. (2000). Understory plant community response to season of burn in natural longleaf pine forests. Proceedings 21st Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire and forest ecology: innovative silviculture & vegetation management, Tallahassee, FL, Tall Timbers Research, Inc.</ref> As well, recovery of this species after a fire disturbance was found to reach original size 36 months post-burn.<ref>Schmalzer, P. A. and C. R. Hinkle (1992). "Recovery of Oak-Saw Palmetto Scrub after Fire." Castanea 57(3): 158-173.</ref> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref> This species is considered one of the most important fruit-yielding plants for supporting wildlife in Georgia flatwoods communities.<ref>Johnson, A. S. and J. L. Landers (1978). "Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia." The Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3): 606-613.</ref> Medicinally, the leaves are considered an astringent, and the fruit are considered emetic and a tonic.<ref>Nickell, J. M. (1911). J.M.Nickell's botanical ready reference : especially designed for druggists and physicians : containing all of the botanical drugs known up to the present time, giving their medical properties, and all of their botanical, common, pharmacopoeal and German common (in German) names. Chicago, IL, Murray & Nickell MFG. Co.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88669Ilex glabra2019-05-31T18:07:28Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> While summer burns are the most damaging, they are also the most beneficial for overall occurrence and biomass of the species after fire.<ref>Kush, J. S., et al. (2000). Understory plant community response to season of burn in natural longleaf pine forests. Proceedings 21st Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire and forest ecology: innovative silviculture & vegetation management, Tallahassee, FL, Tall Timbers Research, Inc.</ref> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref> This species is considered one of the most important fruit-yielding plants for supporting wildlife in Georgia flatwoods communities.<ref>Johnson, A. S. and J. L. Landers (1978). "Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia." The Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3): 606-613.</ref> Medicinally, the leaves are considered an astringent, and the fruit are considered emetic and a tonic.<ref>Nickell, J. M. (1911). J.M.Nickell's botanical ready reference : especially designed for druggists and physicians : containing all of the botanical drugs known up to the present time, giving their medical properties, and all of their botanical, common, pharmacopoeal and German common (in German) names. Chicago, IL, Murray & Nickell MFG. Co.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88668Ilex glabra2019-05-31T17:50:39Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> While summer burns are the most damaging, they are also the most beneficial for overall occurrence and biomass of the species after fire.<ref>Kush, J. S., et al. (2000). Understory plant community response to season of burn in natural longleaf pine forests. Proceedings 21st Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. Fire and forest ecology: innovative silviculture & vegetation management, Tallahassee, FL, Tall Timbers Research, Inc.</ref> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref> This species is considered one of the most important fruit-yielding plants for supporting wildlife in Georgia flatwoods communities.<ref>Johnson, A. S. and J. L. Landers (1978). "Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia." The Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3): 606-613.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88667Ilex glabra2019-05-31T15:16:27Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref> This species is considered one of the most important fruit-yielding plants for supporting wildlife in Georgia flatwoods communities.<ref>Johnson, A. S. and J. L. Landers (1978). "Fruit production in slash pine plantations in Georgia." The Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3): 606-613.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88666Ilex glabra2019-05-31T15:04:12Z<p>Asnyder: /* Pollination */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Other species in the Hymenoptera order observed pollinating this species include ''Perdita floridensis'', ''Augochloropsis anonyma'', ''Dialictus coreopsis'', ''D. miniatulus'', ''D. nymphalis'', ''D. placidensis'', ''D. tegularis'', ''Sphecodes heraclei'', ''Megachile albitarsis'', ''M. policaris'', ''M. texana'', ''Xylocopa micans'', and ''X. virginica krombeini''.<ref>Deyrup, M. J. E., and Beth Norden (2002). "The diversity and floral hosts of bees at the Archbold Biological Station, Florida (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)." Insecta mundi 16(1-3).</ref> Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88665Ilex glabra2019-05-31T14:46:27Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref> Another study found this species to also be negatively affected by disturbances such as stump removal, shearing and piling, discing, and bedding.<ref>Conde, L. F., et al. (1983). "Plant species cover, frequency, and biomass: Early responses to clearcutting, burning, windrowing, discing, and bedding in Pinus elliottii flatwoods." Forest Ecology and Management 6: 319-331.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88664Ilex glabra2019-05-31T14:31:46Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> A study by Brockway and Lewis found ''I. glabra'' to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88663Ilex glabra2019-05-31T14:28:32Z<p>Asnyder: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
Average maximum root depth was found to be 6 cm, and average root porosity was found to be 20%.<ref>Brewer, J. S., et al. (2011). "Carnivory in plants as a beneficial trait in wetlands." Aquatic Botany 94: 62-70.</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88662Ilex glabra2019-05-31T14:24:53Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref> A study on the overall flammability of the plant found that this species has a high foliar energy content, moderate levels of volatile solids, and a great amount of foliar biomass. These foliar volatile compounds were found to be more flammable and release more energy than most other species that live in the same habitat. With this, it is considered hazardous to structures in the wildland-urban interface due to its greater foliar energy content.<ref>Behm, A. L., et al. (2004). "Flammability of native understory species in pine flatwood and hardwood hammock ecosystems and implications for the wildland-urban interface." International Journal of Wildland Fire 13: 355-365.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88661Ilex glabra2019-05-31T14:00:49Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson in the Lake Wales Ridge in Florida found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref> While they found these rare species, like ''Gaylussacia dumosa'' and ''Vaccinium myrsinites'', to rapidly increase immediately after fire disturbance, ''Ilex glabra'' over time overtopped these species in height and abundance.<ref>Abrahamson, W. G. (1984). "Species Responses to Fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 35-43.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88660Ilex glabra2019-05-31T13:57:00Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/> A study by Abrahamson found crown width and height to significantly increase over time since fire disturbance in a swale habitat, but not as drastic of a change in a flatwoods habitat. However, fire disturbance was found to decrease this species' importance compared to other rare species.<ref>Abrahamson, W. (1984). "Post-Fire Recovery of Florida Lake Wales Ridge Vegetation." American Journal of Botany 71(1): 9-21.</ref><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88659Ilex glabra2019-05-31T13:41:38Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref> It has also been observed fruiting all year round.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88658Ilex glabra2019-05-31T13:41:00Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that were recently burned.<ref name= "herbarium"/> It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88657Ilex glabra2019-05-31T13:38:58Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> This species has also been observed in a variety of habitats, including flatwoods, intermittent standing water, marsh edges, scrub thickets, cypress swamps, sand ridges, hammocks, branch bays, riverbanks, pinelands and savannas, lowlands, wet prairies, pine barrens, hillside bogs, low wetland swales, and some disturbed areas such as lots and tram roads. Soils observed ranged from moist sandy and loamy soil to drying sand and sandy peat.<ref name= "herbarium">Florida State University Robert K. Godfrey Herbarium database. URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: May 2019. Collectors: Loran C. Anderson, W. M. B., Tom Barnes, - Britten, Leffie Carlton, Bill Carr, K. Craddock Burks, Robert Christensen, A. F. Clewell, Richard R. Clinebell II, H. S. Conard, George R. Cooley, - Cruz, A. H. Curtiss, Delzie Demaree, Richard J. Eaton, William B. Fox, Elizabeth Gibson, J. P. Gillespie, Robert K. Godfrey, Liz Graf, Bruce Hansen, JoAnn Hansen, Violet Hicks, B. K. Holst, C. Jackson, R. Komarek, R. Kral, H. Kurz, O. Lakela, S. W. Leonard, Sidney McDaniel, K. M. Meyer, Joseph Monachino, - Montero, N. Annette Morris, Chas. A. Mosier, T. Myint, J. B. Nelson, R. A. Norris, William Platt, Elmer C. Prichard, James D. Ray, Jr., P. L. Redfearn, P. L. Redfearn, Jr., Valerie Renard, Raul Rivero, R. L. Scott, Cecil R. Slaughter, John K. Small, C. E. Smith, Francis Thorne, A. Townesmith, E. Tyson, John Utley, Kathy Utley, D. B. Ward, Roomie Wilson, C. E. Wood, Jean W. Wooten, and B. T. Y. States and Counties: Alabama: Conecuh. Florida: Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Calhoun, Citrus, Duval, Escambia, Flagler, Franklin, Gadsden, Glades, Gulf, Hillsborough, Jackson, Jefferson, Lake, Lee, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Martin, Okaloosa, Orange, Osceola, Palm Beach, Pasco, Polk, Putnam, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Seminole, Taylor, Volusia, Wakulla, Walton, and Washington. Georgia: Thomas. Mississippi: Hancock.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Pinus palustris'', ''Aristida tussocks'', ''Aristida stricta'', ''Aristida'' sp., ''Ilex coriacea'', ''Ilex cassine'', '''''Ilex glabra''''', ''Lobelia brevifolia'', ''L. nuttallii'', ''Polygala brevifolia'', ''P. ramosa'', ''Eriocaulon decangulare'', ''Lycopodium carolinianum'', ''Rhynchospora'' sp., ''Utricularia juncea'', ''Serenoa repens'', ''Senecio'' sp., ''Sarracenia'' sp., ''Hypericum'' sp., ''Baptisia alba'', ''Quercus laevis'', and various sedges.<ref name= "herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88656Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:53:43Z<p>Asnyder: /* Conservation and management */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> It is also considered critically imperiled in Texas, and possibly extirpated in New Hampshire.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88655Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:49:22Z<p>Asnyder: /* Seed bank and germination */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/> Even though the seeds exhibit a dormancy and patience is important for germination, treating the seeds for 30 to 60 days at 68 to 86 degrees followed by 60 to 90 days at 41 degrees can somewhat benefit germination as well.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88654Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:47:30Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
Overall, this species is considered by pollination ecologists to be of special value to honey bees since it attracts such large numbers for pollination.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88653Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:46:34Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> It is also tolerant of flooding.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88652Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:43:10Z<p>Asnyder: /* Conservation and management */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref> For management of controlling the species, fire can be used as a tool to reduce the overall population. This can be achieved by successive fires, which can effectively kill the plant, and summer or winter burns can be applied for effective control of the species.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88651Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:41:36Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia.<ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> It is a dominant species in well-drained pocosin and bayland community sites, and is considered a very conspicuous species in longleaf pine communities in Florida. The species is shade tolerant, and can grow in full sun or shady areas, dry or wet areas, and on soils from sandy to heavy peat.<ref name= "guide"/> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<br />
===Seed dispersal===<br />
Due to the use of ''Ilex glabra'' by wildlife as well as its ability to colonize a wide variety of habitats, it is thought that the seeds are dispersed by animals.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of this species can stay dormant in the seed bank for years, where germination could not occur for 2 to 3 years at most.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
It is a common component of "fire-climax communities", and can commonly invade frequently burned sites. Fire disturbance top-kills the plant, which makes it adapted to recurrent fire regimes. While low intensity fires can only kill recent growth, fire disturbance usually kills the aerial portion of the stem. Resprouting from fire occurs through the rhizomes and root crowns of the plant, and is most vigorous during the first year after a fire disturbance. In terms of fire seasonality, summer burn regiments are the most damaging for this species follwed by winter burn regiments.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88650Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:28:18Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
Various species in the ''Ilex'' genus, including this species, contain a mixture of the alkaloid theobromine that is caffeine-like, actual caffeine, and various glycosides. This gives the opportunity to use this species as a potential caffeine crop that can be used to make beverages.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88649Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:25:49Z<p>Asnyder: /* Cultivation and restoration */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
This species can be used in restoration efforts for erosion control, phosphate mine reclamation, and watershed protection.<ref name= "guide"/><br />
<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88648Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:24:38Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref> This plant is foraged by white-tailed deer, marsh rabbit, raccoon, opossum, coyote, bobwhite quail, wild turkey, and other species of birds. It provides cover for small rodents, some birds, and white-tailed deer. The nectar from the flowers is also an important source for production of honey.<ref name= "guide">Nesom, G. and G. Guala. (2003). Plant Guide: Inkberry ''Ilex glabra''. N.R.C.S. United States Department of Agriculture. Baton Rouge, LA.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88647Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:19:49Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
It consists of approximately 5-10% of the diet for various large mammals, small mammals, and terrestrial birds.<ref>Miller, J.H., and K.V. Miller. 1999. Forest plants of the southeast and their wildlife uses. Southern Weed Science Society.</ref><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88646Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:18:52Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref> In the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, this species is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as a facultative wetland species that mostly occurs in wetland habitats, but can also occasionally be found in non-wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88645Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:17:12Z<p>Asnyder: /* Conservation and management */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
This species is listed as threatened by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection and by the Maine Department of Conservation, Natural Areas Program. It is also listed as exploitably vulnerable by the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Land and Forests, and is listed as extirpated by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.<ref name= "USDA">USDA, NRCS. (2016). The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 30 May 2019). National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA.</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88644Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:14:15Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common names: inkberry; little gallberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88643Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:13:52Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Inkberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
Generally, ''I. glabra'' flowers from May until June and fruits from September until November.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88642Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:13:06Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Inkberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' can be found in "savannas, pine flatwoods, pocosin margins, swamps, primarily in wetlands, but extending upslope even into sandhills, with a clay lens or spodic horizon below to maintain additional moisture."<ref name= "Weakley"/> It is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
''I. glabra'' has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Ilex_glabra&diff=88641Ilex glabra2019-05-30T19:10:52Z<p>Asnyder: /* Distribution */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Ilex glabra<br />
| image = Ilex-glab.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by Wayne Matchett, [http://www.spacecoastwildflowers.com SpaceCoastWildflowers.com]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicotyledons <br />
| ordo = Celastrales<br />
| familia = Aquifoliaceae<br />
| genus = ''Ilex ''<br />
| species = '''''I. glabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Ilex glabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = (L.) A. Gray<br />
| range_map = ilex_glab_dist.jpg<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Ilex glabra'' from USDA NRCS [http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ILGL Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
<br />
Common name: Inkberry<br />
==Taxonomic notes==<br />
==Description== <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
“Trees or shrubs, usually with imperfect flowers. Leaves simple, entire, serrate, dentate or crenate; stipules obsolete. Flowers axillary, solitary, fascicled or in cymes, 4-7 merous, 4-8 mm broad; petals united at the base, imbricate in bud; pistillate flowers usually with nonfunctional stamens; anthers opening lengthwise; stigmas 4-7, essentially sessile. Drupe red, black or rarely yellow or white. Seeds with hard, bony endocarp (pyrenes), often grooved or ribbed on the back, 4-7 in a fruit, 1 in each locule.” <ref name="Radford et al 1964">Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. 1964, 1968. The University of North Carolina Press. 679-84. Print.</ref><br />
<br />
"Rhizomatous shrub to 3m tall, usually forming extensive colonies, twigs puberulent. Leaves evergreen, obovate to elliptic, 2.5-6.5 cm long, crenate, but usually only toward the apex, the last pair of teeth usually directly opposite each other, glabrous, lustrous above; petioles 38 mm long, canescent. Pedicels 1-5 mm long, appearing longer when single fruited (careful examination shows that the lower part is peduncle). Staminate flowers in axillary, 3-7 flowered, pedunculate cymes. Pistillate flowers axillary, solitary or in 3-flowered, pedunculate cymes. Flowers 5-7 merous. Drupe black, dull or slightly lustrous, globose, 5-7 in diam.; pyrenes 5-7, smooth, 3-4 mm long." <ref name="Radford et al 1964"/><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''Ilex glabra'' is distributed from Nova Scotia and Maine south to Florida and west to Texas.<ref name= "Weakley">Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''Ilex glabra'' is restricted to native groundcover with a statistical affinity in upland pinelands of South Georgia. <ref name="Ostertag and Robertson 2007">Ostertag, T.E., and K.M. Robertson. 2007. A comparison of native versus old-field vegetation in upland pinelands managed with frequent fire, South Georgia, USA. Pages 109–120 in R.E. Masters and K.E.M. Galley (eds.). Proceedings of the 23rd Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference: Fire in Grassland and Shrubland Ecosystems.</ref><br />
<br />
===Phenology=== <!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
''I. glabra'' has been observed to flower from April to June with peak inflorescence in May.<ref>Nelson, G. [http://www.gilnelson.com/ PanFlora]: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 12 DEC 2016</ref><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<br />
===Pollination===<br />
The following Hymenoptera families and species were observed visiting flowers of ''Ilex glabra'' at Archbold Biological Station:<ref name="Deyrup 2015">Deyrup, M.A. and N.D. 2015. Database of observations of Hymenoptera visitations to flowers of plants on Archbold Biological Station, Florida, USA.</ref><br />
<br />
Apidae: ''Apis mellifera, Bombus griseocollis, B. impatiens, Epeolus erigeronis, E. glabratus, E. pusillus, E. zonatus''<br />
<br />
Colletidae: ''Colletes banksi, C. brimleyi, C. distinctus, C. mandibularis, C. nudus, C. sp. A., C. thysanellae, Hylaeus confluens, H. schwarzi''<br />
<br />
Halictidae: ''Agapostemon splendens, Augochlora pura, Augochloropsis metallica, Halictus poeyi, Lasioglossum coreopsis, L. miniatulus, L. nymphalis, L. pectoralis, L. placidensis, L. puteulanum, Sphecodes brachycephalus''<br />
<br />
Leucospididae: ''Leucospis affinis, L. slossonae'' <br />
<br />
Megachilidae: ''Anthidiellum notatum rufomaculatum, A. perplexum, Anthidium maculifrons, Coelioxys sayi, Dianthidium floridiense, Megachile brevis pseudobrevis, M. exilis parexilis, M. mendica, M. petulans, M. rugifrons, M. xylocopoides''<br />
<br />
Pompilidae: ''Ageniella partita, Anoplius krombeini, Episyron conterminus posterus, Priocnemis cornica, Psorthaspis legata, Sericopompilus apicalis''<br />
<br />
Sphecidae: ''Alysson melleus, Bembecinus nanus floridanus, Bembix sayi, Bicyrtes quadrifasciata, Cerceris bicornuta, C. blakei, C. flavofasciata floridensis, C. fumipennis, C. rufopicta, Crabro arcadiensis, Ectemnius rufipes ais, Gorytes dorothyae ruseolus, Isodontia auripes, I. exornata, I. mexicana, Larropsis greeni, Liris muesebecki, Microbembex monodonta, Miscophus americanum, M. slossonae slossonae, Oxybelus laetus fulvipes, Palmodes dimidiatus, Sphex ichneumoneus, Stictiella serrata, Tachysphex apicalis, T. similis, Tanyoprymnus moneduloides, Trypargilum clavatum johannis, T. collinum''<br />
<br />
Vespidae: ''Eumenes fraternus, E. smithii, Leptochilus alcolhuus, L. krombeini, L. republicanus, Mischocyttarus cubensis, Monobia quadridens, Pachodynerus erynnis, Parancistrocerus fulvipes rufovestris, P. salcularis rufulus, Polistes dorsalis hunteri, Stenodynerus fundatiformis, S. lineatifrons, Vespula squamosa, Zethus slossonae, Z. spinipes''<br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--===Diseases and parasites===--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora-Bloom24167_500.jpg| <Center> Flower of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com] <br />
<br />
File:Ilex_glabra_J-Gwaltney_SEFlora8328_500.jpg| <center> Fruit of ''Ilex glabra'' <p> Photo by John R. Gwaltney </p><p> [http://www.southeasternflora.com/index.asp Southeastern Flora.com]<br />
</nowiki></gallery><br />
<br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88640Hyptis alata2019-05-30T19:06:12Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> As well, it is considered to be an indicator species of the calcareous savanna habitats in Florida.<ref name= "Carr">Carr, S. C., et al. (2010). "A Vegetation Classification of Fire-Dependent Pinelands of Florida." Castanea 75(2): 153-189.</ref> In terms of disturbances, this species was shown to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Magnolia grandiflora'', ''Celtis'' sp., ''Tilia'' sp., ''Jacquemontia'' sp., ''Stachys'' sp., ''Polygonum'' sp., and others.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<br />
===Seed bank and germination===<br />
Seeds of ''Hyptis alata'' have been found to persist in the seed bank even after a fire disturbance.<ref name= "Kalmbacher 2005">Kalmbacher, R., et al. (2005). "Seeds obtained by vacuuming the soil surface after fire compared with soil seedbank in a flatwoods plant community." Native Plants Journal 6: 233-241.</ref><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that have fire disturbance.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/> As well, even the seeds of this species were found to persist in the seed bank following a fire disturbance.<ref name= "Kalmbacher 2005"/><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is considered to be of poor forage value.<ref>Hilman, J. B. (1964). "Plants of the Caloosa Experimental Range " U.S. Forest Service Research Paper SE-12 </ref><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88639Hyptis alata2019-05-30T19:04:24Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> As well, it is considered to be an indicator species of the calcareous savanna habitats in Florida.<ref name= "Carr">Carr, S. C., et al. (2010). "A Vegetation Classification of Fire-Dependent Pinelands of Florida." Castanea 75(2): 153-189.</ref> In terms of disturbances, this species was shown to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Magnolia grandiflora'', ''Celtis'' sp., ''Tilia'' sp., ''Jacquemontia'' sp., ''Stachys'' sp., ''Polygonum'' sp., and others.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that have fire disturbance.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is considered to be of poor forage value.<ref>Hilman, J. B. (1964). "Plants of the Caloosa Experimental Range " U.S. Forest Service Research Paper SE-12 </ref><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88638Hyptis alata2019-05-30T19:02:47Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> As well, it is considered to be an indicator species of the calcareous savanna habitats in Florida.<ref name= "Carr">Carr, S. C., et al. (2010). "A Vegetation Classification of Fire-Dependent Pinelands of Florida." Castanea 75(2): 153-189.</ref> In terms of disturbances, this species was shown to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Magnolia grandiflora'', ''Celtis'' sp., ''Tilia'' sp., ''Jacquemontia'' sp., ''Stachys'' sp., ''Polygonum'' sp., and others.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that have fire disturbance.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88637Hyptis alata2019-05-30T19:01:28Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/> In terms of disturbances, this species was shown to be negatively affected by clearcutting the overstory.<ref>Brockway, D. G. and C. E. Lewis (2003). "Influence of deer, cattle grazing and timber harvest on plant species diversity in a longleaf pine bluestem ecosystem." Forest Ecology and Management 175: 49-69.</ref><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Magnolia grandiflora'', ''Celtis'' sp., ''Tilia'' sp., ''Jacquemontia'' sp., ''Stachys'' sp., ''Polygonum'' sp., and others.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that have fire disturbance.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88636Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:45:34Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Magnolia grandiflora'', ''Celtis'' sp., ''Tilia'' sp., ''Jacquemontia'' sp., ''Stachys'' sp., ''Polygonum'' sp., and others.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<br />
===Fire ecology=== <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
This species has been observed in habitats that have fire disturbance.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88635Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:44:56Z<p>Asnyder: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
Associated species include ''Magnolia grandiflora'', ''Celtis'' sp., ''Tilia'' sp., ''Jacquemontia'' sp., ''Stachys'' sp., ''Polygonum'' sp., and others.<ref name= "FSU herbarium"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88634Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:42:38Z<p>Asnyder: /* Conservation and Management */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
''Hyptis alata'' is considered a vulnerable species in the state of North Carolina.<ref>[[http://explorer.natureserve.org]] NatureServe Explorer. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88633Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:40:50Z<p>Asnyder: /* Ecology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<br />
===Use by animals=== <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
This species attracts bees, birds, and butterflies, and is moderately deer resistant.<ref name= "lady bird"/><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88632Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:39:58Z<p>Asnyder: /* Habitat */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock.<ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> This species can grow in full sun and part shade, moist to wet sandy soils, acidic to circumneutral soil pH, and is cold and heat tolerant.<ref name= "lady bird"/> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88631Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:36:48Z<p>Asnyder: /* Description */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America.<ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It can grow up to 4 feet tall with round flower heads and individual flowers spotted with purple. Leaves simple, oppositely arranged, lanceolate, and with serrated leaf margins. As well, its common name comes from the musky mint odor the plant gives off.<ref name= "lady bird">[[https://www.wildflower.org/plants/search.php?search_field=&newsearch=true]] Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. Accessed: May 30, 2019</ref><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock. <ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
<!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyderhttp://coastalplainplants.org/wiki/index.php?title=Hyptis_alata&diff=88630Hyptis alata2019-05-30T18:32:54Z<p>Asnyder: /* Habitat */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{italic title}}<br />
Common names: clustered bushmint <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> , musky mint <ref name= "kalmbacher">Kalmbacher, R. S., et al. (1994). "South Florida flatwoods range vegetation responses to season of deferment from grazing." Journal of Range Management 47(1): 43-47.</ref><br />
<!-- Get the taxonomy information from the NRCS Plants database --><br />
{{taxobox<br />
| name = Hyptis alata<br />
| image = Hyptis alata_SEF.jpg<br />
| image_caption = Photo by the [http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.php?plantid=723 Southeastern Flora Plant Database]<br />
| regnum = Plantae<br />
| divisio = Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants<br />
| classis = Magnoliopsida - Dicots <br />
| ordo = Lamiales<br />
| familia = Lamiaceae<br />
| genus = ''Hyptis''<br />
| species = '''''H. alata'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Hyptis alata ''<br />
| binomial_authority = Raf.<br />
| range_map = HYPE_ALAT_DIST.JPG<br />
| range_map_caption = Natural range of ''Hyptis alata'' from USDA NRCS [http://www.plants.usda.gov Plants Database].<br />
}}<br />
==Taxonomic Notes==<br />
Synonyms: ''H. radiata'' Willdenow<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
''H. alata'' is a perennial forb/herb of the Lamiaceae family that is native to North America. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> <br />
<!-- Basic life history facts such as annual/perrenial, monoecious/dioecious, root morphology, seed type, etc. --><br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
''H. alata'' is specifically found in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas in the southeastern United States. <ref name= "USDA"> [https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CEAM USDA Plant Database]</ref> It is also native to the West Indies.<ref name= "Weakley"/><br />
<br />
==Ecology==<br />
===Habitat=== <br />
''H. alata'' is commonly found in wet pine savannas, edges of swamp forests, and moist ditches.<ref name= "Weakley"> Weakley, A. S. (2015). Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Herbarium.</ref> Additionally, habitats that specimens of ''H. alata'' have been recovered from include pine flatwoods, in sandy peat of swampland, burned pineland, cypress dome, wet sandy loam, and coastal hammock. <ref name = "FSU herbarium"> URL: http://herbarium.bio.fsu.edu. Last accessed: June 2018. Collectors: R.K. Godfrey, R. Kral, Samuel B. Jones, Jr., Karen MacClendon, Gary R. Knight, Loran C. Anderson. States and counties: Florida (Charlotte, Brevard, Calhoun, Jackson, Franklin), Mississippi (Lamar) </ref> It is listed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service as an obligate wetland species that is almost exclusively found in wetland habitats.<ref name= "USDA"/><br />
<br />
<!--Natural communities, human disturbed habitats, topography, hydrology, soils, light, fire regime requirements for removal of competition, etc.--><br />
<br />
===Phenology===<br />
Generally, ''H. alata'' flowers from late June until September.<ref name= "Weakley"/> It has been observed to flower in June, July, September, and October. <ref name= "Pan Flora"> Nelson, G. PanFlora: Plant data for the eastern United States with emphasis on the Southeastern Coastal Plains, Florida, and the Florida Panhandle. www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ Accessed: 22 MAY 2018</ref><br />
<!--Timing off flowering, fruiting, seed dispersal, and environmental triggers. Cite PanFlora website if appropriate: http://www.gilnelson.com/PanFlora/ --><br />
<!--===Seed dispersal===--><br />
<!--===Seed bank and germination===--><br />
<!--===Fire ecology===--> <!--Fire tolerance, fire dependence, adaptive fire responses--><br />
<!--===Pollination===--> <br />
<!--===Use by animals===--> <!--Herbivory, granivory, insect hosting, etc.--><br />
<!--==Diseases and parasites==--><br />
<br />
==Conservation and Management==<br />
<br />
==Cultivation and restoration==<br />
==Photo Gallery==<br />
<gallery widths=180px><br />
</gallery><br />
==References and notes==</div>Asnyder